List of participating nations at the Winter Olympic Games

This is a list of nations, as represented by National Olympic Committees (NOCs), that have participated in the Winter Olympic Games between 1924 and 2010. The Winter Olympic Games have been held every four years (once during each Olympiad) since 1924, except for the cancelled Games of 1940 and 1944, and in 1994 when the Winter Games were moved to the middle of the Olympiad, two years after the previous Games. 103 of the current 205 NOCs have participated in at least one Winter Games, and twelve nations (Austria, Canada, Finland, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States) have participated in all twenty-one Winter Games to date. Including continuity from Czechoslovakia, the Czech Republic and Slovakia have also been represented in every edition.

Contents

History

Origin and early Games

The first winter sport to be contested at the modern Olympic Games was figure skating at the 1908 Games in London. A total of 21 skaters from six countries (Argentina, Germany, Great Britain, Sweden, Russia, and the United States) competed in four events on October 28–29.[1] Skating was not in the program of the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm, but returned for the 1920 Games in Antwerp. Ice hockey was also part of the 1920 program of events, with seven teams competing.[2]

The first Winter Games were held in 1924, in Chamonix, France. They were originally called International Winter Sports Week and held in association with the 1924 Summer Olympics, but were in retrospect designated by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) as the I Olympic Winter Games.[3] Sixteen nations participated in these Games: fourteen from Europe and two from North America.[4] Four years later, 25 nations were represented at the 1928 Winter Olympics, in St. Moritz, Switzerland, including Argentina (the first nation from the Southern Hemisphere), Japan (the first Asian nation), and Mexico.[5] Participation in the 1932 Games, held in Lake Placid, United States, during the Great Depression, was reduced to 17 nations.[6] The 1936 Winter Games, in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, had 28 participating nations, the largest number to that date.[7] These would be the last Winter Games for twelve years, as the planned 1940 Games and 1944 Games were cancelled due to World War II.[8]

Post-war years and Cold War era

After the war, 28 nations would return to St. Moritz for the 1948 Winter Olympics, but not Germany or Japan, who were not invited because of their roles in the war.[9] The 1952 Winter Games in Oslo, Norway, featured 30 participating nations.[10] The 1956 Games in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy, marked the Winter Games debut of the Soviet Union, along with 31 other nations.[11] The NOCs of East Germany and West Germany would be represented by a single German team, an arrangement that would continue until 1964.[12] Thirty nations would participate at the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley, United States,[13] including South Africa, the first African nation to participate in the Winter Games. Thirty-six nations were represented in Innsbruck, Austria, in 1964.[14]

The 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble, France, marked the first time that East Germany and West Germany competed as independent teams, two of the 37 nations that took part.[15] The Games of 1972 were held in Sapporo, Japan, the first time the Winter Games were held outside of Europe or the United States. A total of 35 nations were represented, including the Philippines, the first appearance by a southeast Asian nation.[16] The Winter Games returned to Innsbruck, in 1976, with 37 participating nations.[17]

Lake Placid was once again the site of the Winter Games, in 1980, with 37 competing nations.[18] The People's Republic of China made their Olympic debut but, in response, the Republic of China boycotted the Games, after participating in 1972 and 1976. Sarajevo, SFR Yugoslavia was host to the 1984 Winter Olympics, which welcomed 49 nations.[19] Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands were the first two Caribbean NOCs to compete in the Winter Games. Several more tropical nations would participate at the 1988 Winter Olympics, in Calgary, Canada, including the famed Jamaican Bobsled Team.[20]

Recent Games

The post-Cold War events of the early 1990s led to a large increase in participating nations at the Olympics. At the 1992 Games, in Albertville, France, a total of 64 NOCs were represented, including a single Germany team—following the German reunification in 1990—and a Unified Team composed of six of the ex-republics of the Soviet Union.[21] The Baltic states competed independently for the first time since 1936, and some of the ex-Yugoslav nations started to compete independently in 1992.

In October 1986, the IOC had voted to hold the Olympic Winter Games half-way through the four-year Olympiad, rather than in the same year as the summer Games,[22] and this change started with the XVIIth Olympic Winter Games in 1994 in Lillehammer, Norway. A total of 67 nations took part, including the Czech Republic and Slovakia as independent teams, and each of the ex-Soviet nations.[23]

The Winter Games have continued to grow in the recent past, with 72 nations at the 1998 Winter Olympics, in Nagano, Japan,[24] 77 nations at the 2002 Winter Olympics, in Salt Lake City, United States,[25] and 80 nations at the 2006 Winter Olympics, in Turin, Italy.[26][27] A total of 82 nations are expected to compete at the 2010 Games in Vancouver, Canada.[28]

List of nations

Description

This list includes 103 of the 205 current NOCs,[29] arranged alphabetically. The three-letter country code is also listed for each NOC. Since the 1960s, these codes have been frequently used by the IOC and each Games organizing committee to identify NOCs, such as within the official report of each Games.[30]

Several nations have changed during their Olympic history; these are explained by footnotes linked within the table itself. A select number of historical nations are also included in the table to more clearly illustrate past Olympic appearances for their successor nations:

Table legend

24   In the table headings, indicates the Games year, from 1924 through 2010
• Participated in the specified Games
H Host nation for the specified Games
[A] Additional explanatory comments at the linked footnote
  The planned Games of 1940 and 1944 were cancelled due to World War II
  NOC superseded or preceded by other NOC(s) during these years

Alphabetical list

Contents: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N P R S T U V Y

A

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Albania ALB • •
Algeria ALG • • •
American Samoa ASA •
Andorra AND • • • • • • • • • •
Argentina ARG • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Armenia ARM see Soviet Union [B] • • • • •
Australia AUS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Austria AUT • • • • • • • • H • • H • • • • • • • • •
Azerbaijan AZE see Soviet Union • • • •

B

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Belarus BLR see Soviet Union [B] • • • • •
Belgium BEL • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Bermuda BER • • • • • •
Bolivia BOL • • • • •
Bosnia and Herzegovina BIH see Yugoslavia • • • • •
Brazil BRA • • • • • •
Bulgaria BUL • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

C

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Cameroon CMR •
Canada CAN • • • • • • • • • • • • • • H • • • • • H
Cayman Islands CAY •
Chile CHI • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
China, People's Republic of CHN • • • • • • • • •
Chinese TaipeiROC[›] TPE • • • • • • • • • •
Colombia COL •
Costa Rica CRC • • • • •
Croatia CRO see Yugoslavia • • • • • •
Cyprus CYP • • • • • • • • •
Czech Republic CZE see Czechoslovakia • • • • •
Czechoslovakia TCH • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

D

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Denmark DEN • • • • • • • • • • • •

E

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Egypt EGY •
Estonia EST [C] • • see Soviet Union • • • • • •
Ethiopia ETH • •

F

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Fiji FIJ • • •
Finland FIN • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
France FRA H • • • • • • • • H • • • • • H • • • • •

G

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Georgia GEO see Soviet Union • • • • •
Germany GER • • H • • • • • • •
East Germany GDR [A] [A] [A] • • • • • •
West Germany FRG • • • • • •
Ghana GHA •
Great Britain GBR • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Greece GRE • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Guam GUM •
Guatemala GUA •

H

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Honduras HON •
Hong Kong HKG • • •
Hungary HUN • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

I

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Iceland ISL • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
India IND • • • • • • • •
Iran IRI • • • • • • • • •
Ireland IRL • • • • •
Israel ISR • • • • •
Italy ITA • • • • • • H • • • • • • • • • • • • H •

J

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Jamaica JAM • • • • • •
Japan JPN • • • • • • • • H • • • • • • H • • •

K

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Kazakhstan KAZ see Soviet Union [B] • • • • •
Kenya KEN • • •
North Korea PRK • • • • • • • •
South Korea KOR • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Kyrgyzstan KGZ see Soviet Union • • • • •

L

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Latvia LAT • • • see Soviet Union • • • • • •
Lebanon LIB • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Liechtenstein LIE • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Lithuania LTU • see Soviet Union • • • • • •
Luxembourg LUX • • • • • • •

M

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Macedonia MKD see Yugoslavia • • • •
Madagascar MAD •
Mexico MEX • • • • • • •
Moldova MDA see Romania see Soviet Union • • • • •
Monaco MON • • • • • • • •
Mongolia MGL • • • • • • • • • • • •
Montenegro MNE see Yugoslavia see SCG •
Morocco MAR • • • • •

N

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Nepal NEP • • •
Netherlands NED • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Netherlands Antilles AHO • •
New Zealand NZL • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Norway NOR • • • • • H • • • • • • • • • • H • • • •

P

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Pakistan PAK •
Peru PER •
Philippines PHI • • •
Poland POL • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Portugal POR • • • • • •
Puerto Rico PUR • • • • • •

R

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Romania ROU • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Russia RUS see Soviet Union [B] • • • • •

S

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
San Marino SMR • • • • • • • •
Senegal SEN • • • • •
Serbia SRB see Yugoslavia see SCG •
Serbia and MontenegroSCG[›] SCG see Yugoslavia • • •
Slovakia SVK see Czechoslovakia • • • • •
Slovenia SLO see Yugoslavia • • • • • •
South Africa RSA • • • • • •
Soviet Union URS • • • • • • • • • [B]
Spain ESP • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Swaziland SWZ •
Sweden SWE • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Switzerland SUI • H • • H • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

T

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Tajikistan TJK see Soviet Union • • •
Thailand THA • •
Trinidad and Tobago TRI • • •
Turkey TUR • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

U

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Ukraine UKR see Soviet Union [B] • • • • •
United States USA • • H • • • • H • • • • H • • • • • H • •
Uruguay URU •
Uzbekistan UZB see Soviet Union [B] • • • • •

V

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
Venezuela VEN • • •
Virgin Islands ISV • • • • • • [D]

Y

Nation Code 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 94 98 02 06 10
YugoslaviaYUG[›] YUG • • • • • • • • • • • H • •

Notes

Name changes

^ ROC: Designated as Republic of China (ROC) in 1972[16] and 1976.[17] In 1979, the IOC started to use Chinese Taipei to refer to this NOC, a compromise that was acceptable for the People's Republic of China to start participating in the Olympic Games.[31][32]
^ SCG: The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, consisting of the Republic of Serbia and the Republic of Montenegro, was reconstituted as the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro in 2003. At the 1998[24] and 2002[25] Games, the nation was still designated Yugoslavia (YUG). The Serbia and Montenegro designation and SCG code were first used at the Winter Games in 2006.[27]
^ YUG: The Kingdom of Yugoslavia (officially the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes until 1929) participated as Yugoslavia in three Games before the Second World War. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia also participated using the Yugoslavia designation, for all but one Games between 1948–1992, and hosted the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo.[19] For participation by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, see Serbia and Montenegro (SCG).

Participation notes

  1. ^ Germany participated as a United Team, representing the National Olympic Committees of both West Germany and East Germany, for the Games of 1956–1964.[12] Retrospectively, the IOC uses the country code EUA for this team.[33]
  2. a b c d e f g After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, nine of the fifteen ex-republics of the Soviet Union were represented at the 1992 Winter Olympics. Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania participated as independent teams, and Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan participated as a combined Unified Team (EUN).[21]
  3. ^ A single speed skater from Estonia registered for the 1924 Winter Olympics and carried the flag in the opening ceremonies, but did not compete.[4]
  4. ^ Anne Abernathy was the lone competitor from the Virgin Islands at the 2006 Winter Olympics, but withdrew from the women's luge event after injuring herself during a practice run.[34]

See also

References

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  2. ^ (in French) (PDF) Olympic Games Antwerp 1920 — Official Report. Belgian Olympic Committee. 1957. pp. 144, 168–170. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1920/1920.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-24. 
  3. ^ "Decisions taken by the Technical Congress at Prague" (PDF). Official Bulletin of the International Olympic Committee (Lausanne: International Olympic Committee) (1): p. 17. January 1926. http://www.la84foundation.org/OlympicInformationCenter/OlympicReview/1926/BODE1/BODE1c.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-24. 
  4. ^ a b (ed.) M. Avé, Comité Olympique Français (in French) (PDF). Les Jeux de la VIIIe Olympiade Paris 1924 - Rapport Officiel. Paris: Librairie de France. pp. 669. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1924/1924.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  5. ^ Comité Olympique Suisse (1928) (in French) (PDF). Rapport Général du Comité Exécutif des IImes Jeux Olympiques d'hiver. Lausanne: Imprimerie du Léman. pp. 7. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1928/1928w1.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  6. ^ (ed.) George Lattimer (1932) (PDF). Official Report III Olympic Winter Games Lake Placid 1932. pp. 70–72, 270. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1932/1932w.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  7. ^ (ed.) Peter von le Fort (1936) (in German) (PDF). IV. Olympische Winterspiele 1936 Amtlicher Bericht. Berlin: Reichssportverlag. pp. 272. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1936/1936win.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  8. ^ (ed.) Carl Diem (January 1940). "The Fifth Olympic Winter Games Will Not Be Held" (PDF). Olympic Review (Berlin: International Olympic Institute) (8): pp. 8–10. http://www.la84foundation.org/OlympicInformationCenter/OlympicReview/1940/ORUE8/ORUE8c.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-24. 
  9. ^ Comité Olympique Suisse (January 1951) (in French) (PDF). Rapport Général sur les Ves Jeux Olympiques d'hiver St-Moritz 1948. Lausanne: H. Jaunin. pp. 11. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1948/ORW1948.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  10. ^ (ed.) Rolf Petersen (1952) (PDF). The Official Report of the Organising Committee of the VIth Winter Olympic Games 1952 at Oslo. Oslo. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1952/or1952w.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  11. ^ (PDF) VII Olympic Winter Games Cortina d'Ampezzo 1956 Official Report. Rome: Società Grafica Romana. pp. 70. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1956/orw1956.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  12. ^ a b (ed.) Berlioux, Monique (July–August 1975). "The Federal Republic of Germany and Olympism" (PDF). Olympic Review (Lausanne: International Olympic Committee) (93–94): pp. 290–306. http://www.la84foundation.org/OlympicInformationCenter/OlympicReview/1975/ore93/ore93zb.pdf. Retrieved 2008-02-08. 
  13. ^ (ed.) Robert Rubin (PDF). VIII Olympic Winter Games Squaw Valley California 1960 Final Report. California Olympic Commission. pp. 92. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1960/1960w.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  14. ^ (ed.) Friedl Wolfgang and Bertl Neumann (1967) (in German) (PDF). Offizieller Bericht der IX. Olympischen Winterspiele Innsbruck 1964. Vienna, Munich: Österreichischer Bundesverlag für Unterricht, Wissenschaft und Kunst. pp. 51. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1964/orw1964.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  15. ^ (PDF) Xth Winter Olympic Games Official Report. Comité d'Organisation des xèmes Jeux Olympiques d'Hiver de Grenoble. 1969. pp. 399. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1968/or1968.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  16. ^ a b (PDF) The Official Report of XIth Winter Olympic Games, Sapporo 1972. The Organizing Committee for the Sapporo Olympic Winter Games. 1973. pp. 228–229. ISBN 0900315059. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1972/orw1972.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  17. ^ a b (ed.) Bertl Neumann (PDF). XII.Olympische Winterspiele Innsbruck 1976 Final Report. Organizing Committee for the XIIth Winter Olympic Games 1976 at Innsbruck. pp. 163. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1976/orw1976.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  18. ^ (PDF) Final Report XIII Olympic Winter Games. Ed Lewi Associates. 1980. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1980/orw1980v2.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  19. ^ a b (PDF) Official Report of the Organising Committee of the XlVth Winter Olympic Games 1984 at Sarajevo. Sarajevo: Oslobodenje. 1984. pp. 89–90. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1984/or1984w.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  20. ^ (ed.) Rodney Chapman (1988) (PDF). XV Olympic Winter Games Official Report. Calgary Olympic Development Association. pp. 621–645. ISBN 0-921060-26-2. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1988/orw1988pt1.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  21. ^ a b (ed.) Claudie Blanc, Jean-Marc Eysseric (1992). "Results" (PDF). Official Report of the XVI Winter Olympic Games of Albertville and Savoie. Albertville, France: Comité d'organisation des XVIes Jeux olympiques d'hiver d'Albertville et de la Savoie. pp. 3. ISBN 2-9507109-0-5. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1992/orw1992.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  22. ^ (ed.) Gafner, Raymond (November–December 1986). "Decisions of the 91st IOC Session" (PDF). Olympic Review (Lausanne: International Olympic Committee) (229–230): p. 651. http://www.la84foundation.org/OlympicInformationCenter/OlympicReview/1986/ore229/ore229j.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-31. 
  23. ^ "Volume IV" (PDF). Official Report of the XVII Olympic Winter Games. 1994. pp. 63. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1994/E_BOOK4.PDF. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  24. ^ a b (ed.) Shinano Mainichi Shimbun (1998). "Volume Three Competition Results and Participants" (PDF). The XVIII Olympic Winter Games Official Report. The Organizing Committee for the XVIII Olympic Winter Games, Nagano 1998. pp. 12. ISBN 4-7840-9827-5. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1998/Vol3_e.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  25. ^ a b (PDF) Official Report of the XIX Olympic Winter Games. Salt Lake Organizing Committee. 2002. ISBN 0-9717961-0-6. http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/2002/2002v1.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-31. 
  26. ^ "Turin 2006". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/past/index_uk.asp?OLGT=2&OLGY=2006. Retrieved 2008-03-18. 
  27. ^ a b "Turin 2006 Winter Olympics - Countries Index". Yahoo! Sports. http://sports.yahoo.com/olympics/torino2006/countries. Retrieved 2008-03-18. 
  28. ^ "Athletes". Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics. Vancouver Organizing Committee. 
  29. ^ "National Olympic Committees". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/index_uk.asp. Retrieved 2008-03-11. 
  30. ^ Mallon, Bill; Karlsson, Ove (May 2004). "IOC and OCOG Abbreviations for NOCs" (PDF). Journal of Olympic History 12 (2): pp. 25–28. http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/JOH/JOHv12n2/johv12n2l.pdf. Retrieved 2008-02-08. 
  31. ^ (ed.) Berlioux, Monique (August–September 1983). "China and Olympism" (PDF). Olympic Review (Lausanne: International Olympic Committee) (190–191): pp. 583–592. http://www.la84foundation.org/OlympicInformationCenter/OlympicReview/1983/ore190/ORE190za.pdf. Retrieved 2008-02-08. 
  32. ^ Chan, Gerald (Autumn 1985). "The "Two-Chinas" Problem and the Olympic Formula". Pacific Affairs (Vancouver: University of British Columbia) 58 (3): pp. 473–490. doi:10.2307/2759241. JSTOR 2759241. 
  33. ^ "Olympic Medal Winners". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/uk/athletes/results/search_r_uk.asp. Retrieved 2008-03-13. 
  34. ^ "Olympics: 'Grandma Luge' crashes out". CNN.com. 2006-02-13. http://edition.cnn.com/2006/SPORT/02/13/olympics.grandma/index.html. Retrieved 2008-04-01. 

External links

Summer Games
Winter Games
1 Discounted ex post facto by the IOC. 2 Cancelled due to World War I. 3 Cancelled due to World War II.